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The Jaina lull
The Jaina canonical texts like Surya-chandra prajnapti and
Jyotiskarandaka, which belong to 2nd century or even earlier have
records of post-Vedic astronomical traditions. This period is
generally considered to be a dark period because these texts show no
advancement in Indian astronomical tradition. The Jaina tradition is
followed by the Siddhantic astronomy. There is a long gap of about
two thousand years between Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisa and the
Siddhantas.
Math-mising astronomy
It can also be called the age of mathematical astronomy. The main
focus of the astronomers was now on calculation of geocentric
planetary orbits and development of algorithms for the solution of
the mathematical equations that arose in the process. Many
theoretical texts, called Siddhantas, evolved in this period. These
Siddhantas and karanas (texts with simple algorithms) were used to
make calendars and predict astronomical phenomena throughout the
country.
In the beginning, there were five main Siddhantas (Panchasiddhantika,
Varahamihira). And three more came into being over a period of about
500 years or so. These are Aryabhatta-siddhanta (Aryabhatta, AD
499), Brahma-siddhanta (Brahmagupta) and Surya-siddhanta (the latest
version attributed to Asura Maya and considered the most accurate).
Aryabhatta-siddhanta, the oldest of the three, is attributed to
Aryabhatta one of the greatest Indian astronomer-mathematician. He
was the first to discover that the Moon and the planets reflect the
light from the Sun, and that the planets follow an elliptical (oval)
orbit around the Sun.
Vedic Timekeeping
In vedic timekeeping, a tithi is a lunar day, or the
time it takes for the longitudinal angle between the
moon and the sun to increase by 12 degrees. Tithis begin
at varying times of the day and range in duration from
approximately 19 to 26 hours. There are 30 tithis in
each lunar month.
The etymology of Sanskrit phrases never ceases to amaze.
For example, take the case of Atithi which means ‘guest’
in Sanskrit. But atithi also means the antonym of Tithi
which denotes a specific time. Atithi can, therefore, be
interpreted as the person who may arrive at any random
time, and should by implication be welcomed whenever
he/she arrives. Imagine, all that meaning packed in one
word simply by prefixing ‘a’?
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Outcome of outsiders
Astronomy developed as a pure science and on practical
lines in Europe during the 15th-18th centuries. European
exploration of the four continents began in the later
half of the 15th century. With this, astronomy became
all the more important. Beginning with the use of
magnetic compass, the mariners and cartographers
employed astronomical quadrants to measure geographical
latitude. Telescope was invented in Holland around 1608,
and was used for astronomical observations by Galileo in
1610. It later developed, along with chronometers, as a
device for measuring latitudes and longitudes.
Astronomical studies were thus boosted commercially in
almost all European countries. But, what were then
needed were accurate astronomical tables and charts for
the motion of Sun and Moon, and star catalogues. Then
astronomy flourished under government patronage.
So when the Jesuits came to India, they introduced this
knowledge of practical astronomy. They were the first
Europeans to introduce modern Western astronomy into
South and South-East Asia. When the fame of the Jesuits'
scholarship reached the court of Emperor Akbar in 1568,
he requested the viceroy at Goa to send missionaries to
his court. Father Anthony Monserrate (1536-1600), one of
the members of the first Jesuit mission to Akbar's
court, was the first foreigner to compile a map of India
in 1590.
However, the year 1757 was a crucial one, which
witnessed the Battle of Plassey. It marked the
ascendency of the East India Company (EICo). By 1765 it
had gained virtual control of the whole of Bengal.
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